Myths of the Nyishis on the Creation and Evolution of Universe

 

Myths of the Nyishis on the Creation and Evolution of Universe

According to Nyishi mythology, before the creation or evolution of the universe, there was emptiness and nothing existed. This particular phase was called Miim-Mama. After the phase of Miim-Mama there were two concurrent phases which were called Kullu and Kurium.

Among the Nyishis, there are three different hypotheses/stories of the creator or the supreme power that creates the entire universe and its components are concerned. In other words, there are three schools of thought relating to the origin and evolution of the universe (Changte-Dote/Nya ballah barnam) including the human race. One school of thought is, that believe in Jingbu-Pabu Abu as a creator, the second one is, that who name the creator as Kullu-Kurium, while, the third one is, that believe that the creation was through Poyub and Nyayub. The first two are almost identical as their difference is just only in the name creator but the third one is a little bit different even in the context of the evolution process. However, all the three accept the belief that a miraculous spirit called Chene Rulum-Dola was used to create the universe and its components. Among the Nyishis, Jingbu-Pabu Abu as a creator is much admired.

Out of oblivion/nothingness, in the beginning, the universe was created in a fraudulent or messy shape. This artistic process of the universe is explained in the following phrases as:

Sachang Ngarngum Tapam Rulum,

Nyudo Ngarngum Tapam Rele,

Rulum Rele Pepa,

Ho…Riumrium Riamriam Pepa…

[The whole universe was in a fragile state and was seems like snow-capped objects. And there was a droplet of water everywhere as if it was floating on leaves].

In such circumstances, Jingbu-Pabu Abu summoned his supremacy through diverse mystical means to create and evolve the present-day universe. It is noteworthy here that the Nyishis always been attached to the creator as a male figure, which can be easily or clearly realize from the very suffix word Abu (father). Initially, the Lawngkh Chene Dola and Jingkio-Urh Chene Dola were called upon to furnish a tangible or substantial figure to the universe. The Kawmkh Chene Dola was engaged to create Sachang (earth), whereas through Kamchang Chene Dola the living beings including the man and animals were created. Invoking with the power of Dote Chene Dola, heaven was created. The Ish (water) was created with the help of Kela Hariak Chene Dola. Biyang Chene Dola was invoked to create Donyi (sun), while Paa Chene Dola was engaged for the creation of Polu/Polo (moon). After the creation of major components of the universe, Jingbu Abu (creator) was dejected to witness that whatsoever he had created was in a state of complete disorder. Consequently, at last, he invoked the powers of Ngumngo Abu to categorically separate the universe into two parts i.e. Changte (earth) and Dote (heaven). In course of the evolution process, the Sachang/Changte (earth) was prepared suitable for accommodating the entire living beings including physical features like streams, rivers, valleys, gorges, hills, mountains, and plains. On the other hand, the natural objects together with the celestial bodies like sun, moon, planets, stars, etc. were set in the Dote (heaven). With this, the evolution or creation process of the universe completed and Jingbu Abu disappeared from the scene.

In the above-mentioned process of evolution of the universe, we have witnessed the coming of Sachang (earth) and Nyudo (heaven/sky), but later on, another world called Uyub Nyoku (world/land of spirits) evolved. As a result, the Nyishis believed that the whole universe is divided into three worlds/parts i.e. Sachang (earth), Nyudo (heaven/sky), and Uyub Nyoku (netherworld/world of souls & spirits). Sachang is a dwelling place for living creatures including men, animals, and plants; Nyudo is the abode of Gods and Goddesses and other celestial bodies; while the Uyub Nyoku is believed to be a place of souls and spirits which may be simply understood as a place meant for the life after death. The Nyishis has also a belief that there is an imaginary world called Tallang Nyoku, which is believed to be lies between Sachang (earth) and Nyudo (heaven). This imaginary world, which the Nyishis treat as hell, is usually believed to be a dwelling place for the persons who die of unnatural death like an accident, murder, suicide, etc.

In the above paras of the creation or evolution of the universe of the Nyishis, we have seen that the power of Kamchang Chene Dola was invoked to create all living beings including the human being. In this process, Loma Chene Dola was employed to create Nyiku Tani, the first man on earth. With the creation of first man, a chain of descendants like Nyima Tani, Nyiya Tani, Nyidar Tani, Nyikum Tani, etc. were born on the earth. According to Nyishi mythology, the Tanis prior to Atu Nyiya Tani was partly human and partly spirit and were living together with all other living creatures on the earth. In fact, the Tanis (men) were endowed with extraordinary power to reign over the earth. The other creatures including the Uyubs felt jealous of the power and authority enjoyed by the Tanis and hence, there was continuous intrigue and hostility between them. At last, Tani was almost defeated by the Uyubs through a deceitful and treacherous manner. At one moment, Tani decided to demolished and finish the entire earth, but, at this juncture, Tu Tugung consoled him not to feel disheartened and advised him to go to Ayu Donyi, who will indubitably help him out of the trouble. Thus, he went there and subsequently entered into wedlock with Jangte Ne, a daughter of Ayu Donyi. Atu Nyiya Tani was believed to be born out of this marriage.

The Nyishis believe that it was from Atu Nyiya Tani, the concrete human race began to flourish on the earth. It is very interesting to note that, with the completion of the creation or evolution process, the supreme power or creator had virtually disappeared but the creator had vested his powers in different ways and means for the wellbeing of the whole human race. Tu Tugung was one of them who played a conciliator role to resolve the dispute between Tani and the world of Uyubs (spirits). Many of the belief systems, faiths, and practices of the Nyishis are evolved out of the struggle between Tanis and Uyubs and ultimately the concept of religion emerged out of their struggle.

The Culture and Its Basic Characteristics

 The Culture and Its Basic Characteristics

The Concept of Culture:

If you ask 100 anthropologists to define culture, you’ll get 100 different definitions. However, most of these definitions would emphasize roughly the same things: that culture is shared, transmitted through learning, and helps shape behavior and beliefs. Culture is of concern to all four subfields and while our earliest ancestors relied more on biological adaptation, culture now shapes humanity to a much larger extent.

• One of the earliest definitions of culture was put forth by Tylor in 1871: “Culture, or civilization, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”

• The book defines culture as, “a society’s shared and socially transmitted ideas, values and perceptions, which are used to make sense of experience and generate behavior and are reflected in that behavior (147).”

• Culture is universal among all human groups and even exists among some primates.

• All cultures have to provide for the physical, emotional, and social needs of their members, enculturate new members, resolve conflicts, and promote survival for their members.

• Society must balance the needs of the whole with the needs of the individual. If individual needs are continually suppressed, social systems can become unstable and individual stress can become too much to handle. Every culture has its own methods of balancing the needs of society in relation to individual needs.

• Subcultures are groups with distinct patterns of learned and shared behavior (ethnicities, races, genders, age categories) within a larger culture. Despite these distinctive traits, members of subcultures still share commonalities with the larger society. Subcultures exist in most state-level systems because those systems are pluralistic, they encompass more than one ethnic group or culture.

Characteristics of Culture

Culture has five basic characteristics: It is learned, shared, based on symbols, integrated, and dynamic. All cultures share these basic features.

• Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of the learning culture is unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The process of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have basic biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally.

• Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same). The multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are discussed in detail below.

• Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money, and art are all symbols. Language is the most important symbolic component of culture.

• Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.

• Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.

CULTURE AND ADAPTATION

Biological adaptation in humans is important but humans have increasingly come to rely upon cultural adaptation. However, not all adaptation is good, and not all cultural practices are adaptive. Some features of a culture may be maladaptive, such as fast food, pollution, nuclear waste, and climate change. However, because the culture is adaptive and dynamic, once we recognize problems, culture can adapt again, in a more positive way, to find solutions.

ETHNOCENTRISM AND THE EVALUATION OF CULTURE

The diversity of cultural practices and adaptations to the problems of human existence often lead some to question which practices are the best. Ethnocentrism is when one views their own culture as the best and only proper way to behave and adapt.

• Since most humans believe their culture is the best and only way to live, there are small amounts of ethnocentrism everywhere in the world.

• Small doses help to create a sense of cultural pride and to build strong, cohesive groups.

• But taken to extremes, and certainly, when it includes an unwillingness to be tolerant, it can be destructive. Ethnocentrism is at the heart of colonization and genocide.

• Cultural anthropologists have, however, pushed for cultural relativism, the principle that all cultures must be understood in terms of their own values and beliefs, not by the standards of another. Under this principle, no culture is better than any other and cultures can only be judged on whether they are meeting the needs of their own people.

Multiple Cultural Worlds

Most individuals are members of multiple cultural worlds. Culture exists at several levels. We typically refer to smaller cultures within a larger culture as subcultures. People have some type of connection to that subculture but must also be able to operate effectively within the larger culture. Some of the diversity we see across subcultures is based on class, race, ethnicity, age, and gender. Social stratification is often the result of our recognition of these worlds as different and a belief that they are somehow inferior to our own or to the larger culture.

• Class is a social category based on people’s economic position in society. Not all societies exhibit class differences; ones who do not are called egalitarian. Class societies are hierarchical, with one class having more access to resources than others. Class is a recent feature of culture, as all early humans lived in egalitarian bands or tribes.

• Race (in a cultural sense) is the socially constructed meanings assigned to the perceived differences between people based on physical traits (skin color, facial features, hair types). What differences we recognize and the meanings we assign those differences are all culturally determined and not biologically created. These physical features do not determine a person’s actions or explain their behavior.

• The ethnic group refers to people who identify themselves as a distinct group based on cultural features such as common origins, language, customs, and beliefs. Ethnic groups can be historically constituted (a group of people who shared a territory, language, or religion) or they can be more recently claimed (African Americans). Just because people choose to see themselves as members of a specific ethnic group doesn’t mean that all members of that group are the same or share beliefs and values. Ethnicity, because it is a marker of group membership, can be used to discriminate.

• Indigenous peoples, “are groups who have a long-standing connection with some territory that predates colonial or outside societies prevailing in the territory.” Indigenous peoples are groups that were in a territory before Europeans or colonists arrived, thus Native Americans are an indigenous group. They are frequently called First Peoples and often suffer from discrimination.

• Gender refers to the cultural meanings assigned to the biological differences between the sexes. Most societies only have masculine or feminine cultural roles, but some have a third, or even a blended, gender. Gender roles vary widely cross-culturally. Closely tied to gender roles are issues relating to homosexuality. In many cultures around the world, there is discrimination based on gender and sexual orientation.

• Age is both a biological fact as well as being culturally constructed. While we can reckon how many years old an individual is (biological age), what that means in terms of rights and responsibilities is culturally constructed. Most societies have obligations and responsibilities that are assigned based on individuals reaching specific ages. Think of driving, drinking, and voting.

Valuing & Sustaining Diversity

Anthropologists recognize the importance of diversity and thus try to help maintain or prevent the extinction of cultures. By describing, documenting, and even advocating for cultures they study, anthropologists help to contribute to continued cultural survival and diversity.